Thousands of landfill sites across the UK and Europe are located in floodplains, raising concerns that toxic waste could be released into rivers, soils and ecosystems during flooding, potentially threatening drinking water supplies and protected habitats.
The findings come from the first continent-wide mapping of landfill sites, carried out by the Watershed Investigations and Investigate Europe.
Patrick Byrne, of Liverpool John Moores University, said: “With increasing frequency and magnitudes of floods and erosion from climate change, there’s a greater risk of these wastes washing into our environment.
“This includes physical waste like plastics and building materials, but also toxic metals and chemicals such as Pfas [‘forever chemicals’] and PCBs [polychlorinated biphenyls].”
Kate Spencer, professor of environmental geochemistry at Queen Mary University, said: “We’ve identified wide-ranging wastes at an eroding coastal landfill [in Tilbury] including what looked like hospital blood bags, and we are talking about tens of thousands of sites that if they aren’t lined and are at flood risk, then there’s multiple ways for it to get into groundwater, surface water and the food chain.”
Up to Half a Million Landfills Across Europe
Researchers estimate there may be as many as 500,000 landfill sites across Europe, including the UK. Around 90% of these sites, including approximately 22,000 in the UK, were created before modern pollution controls such as protective linings were introduced.
Well-managed modern landfills are considered low risk, but older, unlined sites are more vulnerable to leaking harmful substances into the environment.
Tens of Thousands of Landfills Identified in Flood Zones
More than 61,000 landfill sites have been mapped across Europe, with 28% located in areas vulnerable to flooding. Modelling suggests the true number of landfills at flood risk could be as high as 140,000.
The investigation drew on landfill data requests from 10 countries, supported by open-source information. It found a lack of centralised EU landfill records, with national data often fragmented, inconsistent or difficult to access.
“We have inadequate records, differences in ways of categorising these sites and that makes it really difficult to deal with,” said Spencer.
“It’s the worst possible scenario. Most landfills will be fine, but you only need a small number of sites which contain very toxic chemicals to be a problem. We just don’t know which ones.”
Groundwater Contamination Linked to Landfill Sites
More than half of the mapped landfills are located in areas where groundwater fails to meet chemical quality standards, raising concerns that landfill pollution may have contributed to contamination in some locations.
The EU landfill directive, introduced in 1999, banned unlined landfill sites and imposed strict waste acceptance rules. However, sites created before this date often had few or no pollution containment measures.
“There could be many other sources of pollution, such as farming and industry, but one of the main ways chemicals migrate away from landfills is through groundwater,” said Byrne.
Toxic Chemicals Found Leaking From Historic Landfills
Investigations found leachate escaping from a historic landfill at Newgate nature reserve in Wilmslow, Cheshire, into a nearby stream. Tests revealed levels of PFAS “forever chemicals” at 20 times the acceptable limit for drinking water.
In Greece, testing found PFAS concentrations far exceeding drinking water standards, along with mercury and cadmium leaking into the Nedontas river from the former Maratholaka landfill in the Taygetos mountains. The local mayor of Kalamata said the site stopped operating in June 2023 and that there is currently no evidence of environmental harm.
Landfills Located in Drinking Water Protection Zones
Analysis identified almost 10,000 landfill sites located within drinking water protection zones in countries including France, the UK, Spain, Germany, the Netherlands and Italy.
More than 4,000 of these are historical landfills in England and Wales, which are unlikely to have modern pollution controls. It was not always possible to confirm whether landfill sites elsewhere in Europe predated regulatory standards.
“We don’t and won’t know how much risk to human health and our drinking water there is until you can identify where all the landfills are, what is in them, whether they’re leaching and if treatment processes are filtering them out,” said Byrne.
A spokesperson for the European Commission said that “under the drinking water directive the quality of the water has to be ensured ‘at the tap’ in the whole EU. The directive includes several parameters to be monitored and the corresponding limit values have to be complied with. In case of exceedances of these limit values, member states must ensure that the necessary remedial action is taken.”
In the UK, water companies are required to carry out risk assessments and monitoring of public water sources under regulatory guidance.
Coastal Landfills at Risk From Erosion and Storm Surges
Landfills located along coastlines face heightened exposure risks. The analysis identified 346 landfill sites in coastal erosion zones in England, Wales and France, and 258 landfill sites across Europe within 200 metres of the coast.
“These findings are just the tip of the iceberg,” said Spencer, who is assisting the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) in ranking 1,200 high-priority landfill sites in England and Wales.
Testing at two eroding coastal landfills found elevated levels of arsenic released at Lynemouth in the north-east and high concentrations of lead at Lyme Regis in the south-west, both posing potential risks to wildlife.
“We now need to understand the potential risks of climate change and associated pollution release at all our historic landfill sites, not just the coastal ones,” she said, adding that money will be needed to tackle these sites.
“Essentially we are all living on a garbage dump,” said Spencer, who explained that about 80% of the British population lives within 2km of known landfill sites, and disproportionately in the most deprived parts of the country.
Human Health Risks Remain Unclear at Older Sites
A report from the UK Health Security Agency concluded last year that living near a well-managed active or closed landfill site does not pose a significant risk to human health. However, it said the lack of data makes the risks from historical landfill sites harder to assess.
Wildlife may also be affected, as more than 2,000 landfill sites across Europe are located within protected conservation areas.
“We know plastics are accumulating in wildlife, humans and environments and there’s emerging evidence of negative health impacts,” said Byrne.
“A key thing with chemical pollution is where the chemical leachate goes. We have important wetlands around these areas, so if the leachate goes there it could accumulate in wildlife.”
Illegal Waste Dumping Linked to Organised Crime
Illegal waste dumping remains a major issue across Europe. Europol has identified waste crime as one of the continent’s fastest-growing forms of organised criminal activity.
In February, Croatian authorities arrested 13 people suspected of illegally dumping at least 35,000 tonnes of waste from Italy, Slovenia and Germany, generating an estimated €4m in criminal profits.
In England, Environment Agency data shows 137 active investigations into illegal waste dumps involving more than one million cubic metres of material.
In southern Italy’s Campania region, illegal dumping of toxic waste by organised crime groups has been linked to increased rates of illness and death.
UK Landfill Capacity Could Run Out by 2050
In England and Wales, current landfill usage rates suggest remaining landfill capacity could be exhausted by around 2050.
Developing new landfill sites often faces strong public opposition and environmental concerns, increasing pressure to address waste management and pollution risks from existing sites.
An Environment Agency spokesperson said: “Our job is to protect people and the environment, and we are working closely with the landfill industry, water companies and across government to better understand the impacts from Pfas chemicals in landfills.
“Environment Agency teams are undertaking a multi-year programme to improve evidence about the sources of Pfas pollution in England. Alongside this, we are also running further studies to investigate the potential contribution of Pfas in landfill leachate to a limited number of sewage works.”
A Defra spokesperson said: “We want to prevent waste from occurring in the first place, but where waste occurs, we need to manage it in the most appropriate way.
“We are committed to reducing the amount of waste being sent to landfill, supported through our collection and packaging reforms. Alongside this, the forthcoming circular economy growth plan will outline measures to drive greater reuse and recycling, safeguarding the value of our resources and preventing the nation’s waste going to landfill.”
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